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EPA 625/R-00/008
Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems Technology Fact Sheet 5
Vegetated Submerged Beds and Other High-Specific-Surface Anaerobic Reactors
Description
A high-specific-surface anaerobic reactor (figure 1) is any tank or cavity filled with solid media through which wastewater flows with a high hydraulic retention time (HRT). In onsite treatment the two primary types are vegetated submerged beds (VSBs) and anaerobic upflow filters (AUFs). The first is characterized by horizontal flow and prolific growth of macrophytes on the surface. The second comes in a variety of forms from upflow sludge blanket systems and fixed media anaerobic filters to partially fluidized beds of fine media. Both have long HRTs, produce anaerobic effluents, generally treat either high-strength or minimally pretreated wastewater, and usually require some form of posttreatment to meet surface discharge or water reuse requirements.
Figure 1. Generic high-specific surface anaerobic reactor
The primary removal mechanisms in all of these systems are physical, that is, floculation, sedimentation, and adsorption. Anaerobic biological reactions are extremely slow and do not have a significant impact on soluble BOD until HRTs become quite long. Some toxic organic compounds may be reduced through these mechanisms and chemical precipitation (e.g., sulfides) at shorter HRTs.
VSBs, as shown in figure 2, usually follow a septic tank and remove most of the suspended and larger colloidal particles, BOD, organic forms of nitrogen, and other particles. Although they are frequently identified as subsurface constructed wetlands, they do not fit the strict definition of a constructed wetland.
Figure 2. Elements of a vegetated submerged bed (VSB) system
Source: Toms Creek Project, VA.
Three types of AUFs can be used as pretreatment devices for high-strength wastewater and some onsite pretreatment applications in the United States. They are in shown in figures 3, 4, and 5. Figure 3, with a rock medium, is the most typical U.S. application.
Figure 3. Schematic of the upflow anaerobic filter process
Figure 4. Schematic of the upflow anaerobic sludge blanket process
Figure 5. Schematic of the anaerobic fluidized bed process
Typical applications
AUFs are widely used in hot climates where domestic wastewaters are several times higher in strength than U.S. wastewaters. These systems can reduce high BOD and TSS to levels that can be readily treated by typical aerobic processes such as suspended and fixed growth aerobic units or recirculating/intermittent media filters. International literature contains numerous references to the three types of AUFs and their valuable contributions to water pollution abatement. Anaerobic rock upflow filters (figure 6) are also used to lower septic tank effluent BOD and TSS concentrations prior to discharge to the subsurface wastewater infiltration system (SWIS).
Figure 6. Anaerobic upflow filter
VSBs are extremely popular in the United States because of their aesthetic features and their ability to meet basic (secondary) effluent standards when treating septic tank effluent. Until recently they were purported to be capable of nitrification and nutrient removal at economically competitive HRTs. Since they are largely anaerobic, this would be biochemically impossible. However, they are fully capable of meeting secondary BOD and TSS standards. They are also sometimes used before a SWIS and can meet the same effluent TSS and BOD standards as aerobic units (Technology Fact Sheets 1, 2, and 3). VSBs can be considered as pretreatment units regarding SWIS design requirements. They do not, however, remove more than 2 logs of fecal coliform and would likely require disinfection for direct surface discharge. They also require some form of aeration to meet effluent standards for dissolved oxygen (DO). These VSBs will capture rainfall and snowmelt, effluent standards for requiring adjustment to designs of SWIS following these units.
Both VSBs and AUFs are being used in rural areas in combination with aerobic processes to remove significant amounts of nitrogen through denitrification. These processes are included in the nutrient removal fact sheets.
Design assumptions
VSB design guidance for small communities is provided in table 1. In the first few months of operation, excellent phosphorus removal will occur until the rock medium becomes saturated with phosphorus and breakthrough occurs. (Note: USEPA guidance on design of VSBs can be found in Manual: Constructed Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Wastewater, posted at http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/pubs/625r99010/625r99010.pdf)
Table 1. Summary of VSB design guidance
Pretreatmenta Objective Surface area
BOD
TSS
TKN
TPBased on desired effluent quality and areal loading rates as follows:
6 g/m2-d (53.5 lb/ac-d) to attain 30 mg/L effluent
1.6 g/m2-d (14.3 lb/ac-d) to attain 20 mg/L effluent
20 g/m2-d (178 lb/ac-d) to attain 30 mg/L effluent
Use another treatment process in conjunction with VSB
VSBs not recommended for phosphorus removalDepth
Media (typical)
Water (typical)
0.5 - 0.6 m (20 - 24 in)
0.4 - 0.5 m (16 - 20 in)Length Minimum of 15 m (49 ft.) Width As calculated Bottom slope 0 - 1% Top slope Level or nearly level Hydraulic conductivity
First 30% of length
Last 70% of length
1% of clean K
10% of clean KMedia
Inlet zone (1st 2 m [6.5 ft])
Treatment zone
Outlet zone (last 1 m [3.3 ft])
Planting media (top 10 cm [4 in])All media should be washed clean of fines and debris; more uniform rounded media will generally have more void spaces; media should be resistant to crushing or breakage.
40 - 80 mm (1.5 - 3.0 in)
20 - 30 mm (3/4 - 1 in) use clean K = 100,000, if actual K not known
40 - 80 mm (1.5 - 3.0 in)
5 - 20 mm (1/4 - 3/4 in)Miscellaneous Use adjustable outlet control device with capability to flood and drain system and sizing of VSB and SWIS (if used) must include a water balance analysis a Use after primary sedimentation (e.g., septic tank, Imhoff tank, primary clarifier); not recommended for use after ponds because of problems with algae.
Except for the anaerobic upflow rock filter, AUFs are rarely employed for U.S. onsite applications. Since the primary purpose of these systems is to improve the BOD and TSS of septic tank effluent, they are essentially physical processes. Therefore, they must be designed to maximize their flocculation and sedimentation functions. Limited field studies indicate that successful removal of particulate BOD and TSS could be obtained with an average HRT between 16 and 24 hours, rounded media size of 1 to 2 inches or greater, and a means of periodically draining excess accumulated solids from the bottom of the unit. At higher temperatures, some partial digestion of accumulated organic solids occurs. This liquefaction may by accompanied by gas production. The amount and makeup of that gas depend on pH, wastewater constituents (e.g., protein, lipids, carbohydrates), sulfate, alkalinity, and other constituents.
Performance
VSB systems can treat septic tank effluent to a BOD of 20 to 30 mg/L, depending on the organic loading rate chosen. The VSB effluent TSS is almost always less than 30 mg/L. Some removal of all constituents (e.g., heavy metals, organic nitrogen and organic phosphorus, pesticides, and other toxic organics) can also be expected. Over and above these removals, there will be some small percentage of dissolved organic removal owing to anaerobic biological activity.
Rock AUFs after septic tanks have not been widely studied, but they appear to remove TSS by as much as 55 percent from septic tank effluent, while removing a similar percent of the BOD. Actual removals will depend on the specific fractions of particulate, colloidal, and soluble matter in the septic tank effluent. Little soluble or fine particulate removal is likely. Both systems will remove pathogens, with VSBs capable of removing from 1 to 3 logs (design average = 2 logs), while AUF removal is estimated to be closer to 1 log because of shorter HRTs.
Management needs
All of these anaerobic systems are passive in nature and require minimal O/M activity. AUF units may be constructed aboveground, but they usually are below the ground surface to provide insulation and protect against severe climatic conditions. The solid medium can be a coarse gravel or one of many commercially available synthetic media that will not easily clog with biomass. Access to inlet and outlet systems should be provided for purposes of cleaning and servicing. An easily accessible means to drain the unit and an effective alarm system should be provided.
VSB units are generally aesthetically pleasing additions to the landscape if sufficient area is available for their application. It is estimated that fewer than 4 hours per year will be required for O/M tasks, which will involve inspecting the system and making any adjustments required. Therefore, until more information becomes available, a site visit schedule of three to four times a year is suggested.
Residuals generate in VSB systems at a slow rate. Although the system inlet where most solids accumulate can be excavated or piped for high-pressure removal, it is more likely that a replacement system would be built after the service life of the original system ends.
AUF units will require periodic flushing of accumulated solids and inspection of inlet and outlet systems. If solids are allowed to accumulate, the filter may clog or release high solids "events" to the SWIS. This will clog the infiltrative surface or the distribution system. Therefore, a site visit schedule of three to four times per year is suggested until more information becomes available. This would entail from 6 to 8 hours per year of labor. Disposal and transport of excess solids will require similar management to septage.
Risk management issues
VSB systems can usually handle the flow variations likely to occur from residential sources, as well as toxic shock loads and power outages. Reed and colleagues (1995) proposed some models to support the view that insulation provided by dead vegetation (litter) on the surface should aid these systems during typical winters in northern climates. The potential for odor is low for properly sized systems.
AUF systems should also accommodate typical flow variations, toxic shocks, and power outages. They should be insulated from cold weather. AUFs are inherently odor and corrosion generators, so corrosion-resistant materials should be employed. Odor (hydrogen sulfide) production may require the use of an odor-control system (e.g., soil filters) to deodorize off-gases.
Costs
VSB systems for onsite application will cost about $20 per square foot (USEPA, 1999). Almost half of that cost is for the media, while excavation, liner, plants, control structures, and piping make up the rest. Operation and maintenance costs would run less than $100 per year if these services are professionally provided.
AUF systems are likely to cost about $1,000 to $1,500 per house, primarily related to the cost of the tank and related containment features. O/M costs would run around $200 per year, including solids transport as required.
References
Bauer, D.H., E.T. Conrad, and D.G. Sherman. 1979. Evaluation of Onsite Wastewater Treatment and Disposal Options. EPA/600/s2-81-178. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH.
Cowlter, J.B., S. Soneda, and M.B. Ettinger. 1957. Anaerobic contact process for sewage disposal. Sewage and Industrial Wastes Journal 29(4):468-477.
Crites, R., and G. Tchobanoglous. 1998. Small and Decentralized Wastewater Management Systems. WCB McGraw-Hill, San Francisco, CA.
DeRenzo, D.J. 1977. Energy from Bioconversion of Waste Materials. Noyes Data Corporation, Park Ridge, NJ.
Hamilton, J. 1975. Treatment of Septic Tank Effluent with an Anaerobic Filter. Master's of Science in Civil Engineering thesis, University of Washington, Seattle.
Hamilton, J. 1976. Proceedings of Northwest Onsite Wastewater Disposal Short Course. University of Washington, Seattle.
Jewell, W.J. 1987. Anaerobic sewage treatment. Journal of Environmental Science and Technology 21(1):14- 21.
Kennedy, J.C. 1979. Performance of Anaerobic Filters and Septic Tanks Applied to the Treatment of Residential Wastewater. Master's thesis, University of Washington, Seattle.
Lombardo & Associates, Inc. 1983. Design Report. Anaerobic Upflow Filters. Newton, MA.
Netter, R., E. Stubner, P.A. Wildner, and I. Sekoulov. 1993. Treatment of septic tank effluent in a subsurface biofilter. Water Science Technology 28(10):117-124.
Reed, S.C., R.W. Crites, and E.J. Middlebrooks. 1995. Natural Systems for Waste Management and Treatment. McGraw Hill, Inc, New York.
Switzenbaum, M.S. 1985. Proceedings of Seminar/Workshop-anaerobic Treatment of Sewage. Report No. Env.E. 88-85-5. University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA.
Thaulow, H. 1974. Use of Anaerobic Filters for Onsite Treatment of Household Wastewater. Master's thesis, University of Washington, Seattle.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1992. Wastewater Treatment/Disposal for Small Communities. EPA 625/R-92-005. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1993a. Nitrogen Control Manual. EPA 625/R-93/0010. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1993b. Subsurface Flow Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment: A Technology Assessment. EPA 832-R-93-008. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, Washington, DC.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). 1999. Manual: Constructed Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Wastewater. EPA 625/R-99/010. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH.