Findings
A. Participant Knowledge of Drinking Water Issues
Do you drink tap water or bottled water?
A number of participants said they drink water straight from the tap
without any concern or thought to its safety.
"I drink tap water. It's good." (Tacoma respondent)
"We just drink it the way it comes out." (Tacoma respondent)
However, a number of Washington, DC residents indicated they boil their
tap water and keep a supply in the refrigerator.
Other respondents said they only drink bottled water, and others say
they use a filter for their drinking water.
"I filter water from the sink, plus I have it filtered in the refrigerator."
(Tacoma respondent)
"I filter water just because I know what you hear about it. It's
not as bad as Mexico, but it's close." (Sioux Falls respondent)
"I agree. I don't think tap water tastes good. I drink the bottled
water. [...] And then at night, I won't drink the tap water. We don't
have a system built into the apartment." (Sioux Falls respondent)
Still other respondents said they use a combination of drinking bottled
water, filtered tap water, and unfiltered tap water depending on the situation
they are in.
"We buy bottled water a lot and we drink out of the tap a lot too,
because I refill the bottles with tap water and then we drink them." (Tacoma
respondent)
What do you prefer about drinking tap water? Bottled water?
People who drink bottled water said that they feel the water "tastes
better" than their tap water. They also think it is "cleaner" than tap
water, because of regional water safety warnings which has caused them
to doubt the safety of public water. They perceive bottled water to be
"healthier" than tap water.
"I think, supposedly, the bottled water is supposed to be more purified,
whatever, through different systems. I guess that's what I think. That's
why people drink it. Otherwise, what would be the purpose of it?" (Sioux
Falls respondent)
"People wouldn't pay money for it if they didn't believe it was
filtered more, or better for you. When my young children were on formula,
I always bought bottled water just because, well, in that area we had
a well system, and the water smelled bad. And just smelling it, you knew
you couldn't -- I didn't want to give that to my babies." (Sioux Falls
respondent)
Respondents who drink tap water said they continue to drink it because
they have never gotten sick from it, and it looks and tastes fine.
"Well I've never gotten sick, neither does my husband. We're in
good health. I would think, if we weren't safe, we would have some kind
of sickness that would show up, sooner or later." (Tacoma respondent)
"I have been drinking it for so many years, maybe I don't know the
difference." (Tacoma respondent)
"When you turn on a faucet, fill up a glass of water and drink
it, and it doesn't leave a funny aftertaste in your mouth and it doesn't
smell funny, to me that's usually a good sign that it must be safe. And
the fact that I've never gotten sick from it." (Tacoma respondent)
Other respondents considered visible sediment or cloudiness in the water
to be an indication of safety, and were not concerned about drinking their
tap water as long as it looks and smells agreeable.
"I haven't had any problems with it. I haven't had the discolorations
in it. I'm pretty thorough with checking. I have those little spigot screens
on the faucets -- not on the faucets but on the stem and I haven't had
any problems with them clogging. And even when I check for resurfacing
the units there's very little sediment in them." (Calverton respondent)
Some people who drink tap water said they also prefer it because of
the lesser cost, and in fact may avoid getting bottled water or filters
because of the additional economic burden associated with it.
"Bottled water is too expensive." (Sioux Falls respondent)
A number of respondents indicated that they drink tap water only after
having further processed it in some way. Methods used for further purification
were charcoal filter (Brita (tm)) systems, tap filters, distillation stills,
or boiling the water. One respondent indicated he did not trust what is
added to water, such as fluoride, and in general distrusted the government's
motivations and truthfulness -- he preferred to use a home distillation
method. Reasons given by other respondents for filtering tap water using
faucet attachments or filter pitcher systems were usually that it improves
the taste or perceived safety of the water.
"People are uneducated, that's why they drink it. If they knew what
was in the water, how many times on average... (...) Say you take a glass
of water, or take a shower; it's been recycled seven times, which means
it's been used an average of seven times by other people." (Sioux Falls
respondent)
"I drink water filtered all the time. My water stinks." (Tacoma
respondent)
Do you drink bottled water only? If so, why? If not, why not?
Respondents' reasons for drinking only bottled water usually were due
to perceptions of better taste and purity of the water, or even convenience.
"It comes down to we have an old house and our water pressure is
always low. The water would be dirty, and so for convenience sake we'd
buy bottled water and we just kept doing it." (Tacoma respondent)
How do you use drinking water?
Respondents described their uses of drinking water for drinking, bathing,
cooking, laundry, dishwashing, and watering plants. Tap water is generally
used for everything with the exception of drinking, when respondents may
use different sources as described above. However, one Tacoma respondent
said she uses filtered tap water for cooking in addition to drinking because
"it's made some bad tastes with some of the food." Another Tacoma
respondent who solely drinks bottled water will also use the bottled water
for ice cubes, but will use filtered water for cooking (tap water is only
used for laundry orbathing; this respondent changes her water filter on
average of once a week). However, some respondents say they use regular,
unfiltered tap water for all their needs. One woman in Sioux Falls, with
four children ranging in age from 6 years to 3 weeks old, says she uses
tap water for her children on a regular basis.
"I use the tap water for her (the baby's formula). It's safe. I
haven't noticed the awkward taste and stuff. I mean, I've drank a lot
of water at different places, and this water seems OK -- I've been told
it's safe, too."
When do you think about it? Why would you think about it then?
A number of people interviewed did not think about on their water often
or at all, and said they expect to get a safe water supply when they turn
on the tap automatically; they trust that someone is monitoring the safety
of their water, but it shouldn't be something they need to be concerned
with.
However, a large number of respondents did say that they think about
their drinking water source sometimes or often, particularly when using
it for drinking. Cooking, another source of direct water consumption,
is perceived as a "safer" activity because the water is usually boiled.
One Tacoma respondent noted he thinks about water when bathing, because
of the amount of water that he said is "absorbed" by the body through
the skin.
A woman in Atlanta reported that she had thought about the safety of
her drinking water after moving to the area. After her test came back
within safe limits, she had greater confidence in her water safety level.
Only on an occasional basis did individuals report that they had tested
their drinking water for contamination levels.
"We did [think about our water quality] when we first moved here.
We had it tested. We sent it to a lab, and I don't remember where. You
called, and they sent you a little tube thing and you let your water run
for so many minutes. I think it was a little lead scare that was going
on, because we've lived here seven, almost eight years. And you just let
your water run for so long, and you put so much in the tube, send it to
the lab, and they tested it and you get the written results. Our water
was fine." (Atlanta respondent)
Do you think about it more when traveling? What about in other
countries? Is it better or worse here?
When traveling domestically, respondents did not usually report thinking
about their water source. They reported drinking tap water on a regular
basis. Some respondents who usually drink bottled water at home may drink
tap water when traveling, because of availability of tap water or unavailability
of bottled water (e.g., while staying in a relative's home). There were
also some respondents who said they might drink bottled water while traveling
domestically for convenience, such as on car trips or on airplanes. other
reasons for avoiding tap water while traveling domestically were given
as destination's proximity to Mexico or other areas that are perceived
as unsafe.
One woman in Atlanta said she bottles her own tap water and brings it
with her when traveling domestically. Her concerns about other water systems
stem from her perceptions about bad taste.
"We take our own water when we got out of the state always. I think
it's a taste thing. It's more saltier or something, you know." (Atlanta
respondent)
However, when traveling abroad, very few said they would drink tap water
because of health risks. "Don't drink the water" was a slogan that was
heard repeatedly. Even when traveling in Europe, respondents said it is
difficult to get a glass of tap water in a restaurant, for example; the
accepted standard is to purchase bottled water for drinking. Europe, however,
was generally perceived as safer than other destinations such as Mexico,
South America, or Africa. The exception was for respondents who were actually
born or who have lived in another country; they expressed caution but
generally felt safer because of their perceived "lower susceptibility"
to illness.
Has your attitude about drinking water changed at all? What
caused it to change?
Several participants, particularly those in an older age group, expressed
that they had changed their behavior and actions about drinking water
and water sources in general. They reported previous behavior that included
dumping dangerous substances (e.g., turpentine, used motor oil) into sewers,
drains, or waterways. Subsequently they reported that a combination of
education and/or fines by the government has changed their behavior and
attitudes about drinking water safety.
Other respondents who may not have been concerned with drinking water
safety a few years ago reported that they now are very conscious of it,
due to problems in their area with their water supply. They are now more
conscious about the fact that drinking water can potentially be unsafe,
and have taken action to ensure their personal or family drinking water
sources are safer.
"One of my children had a high lead level, and that's another reason
why I give them bottled water." (Maryland respondent)
Some participants, however, particularly individuals who do not worry
about or take precautions with their water safety, said that their opinions
about their drinking water has not changed over time. One woman in Tacoma
said that while she has never thought about her tap water at all, she
is more aware that water in streams can be contaminated and will no longer
drink directly from them while camping.
In general, how concerned would you say that you usually are
about the safety of the water that you drink?
Respondents' reactions to this question varied, depending on the region
of the country where they lived, their personal views and experience,
and whether the area has had any problems with levels of impurities. Washington,
D.C. residents often reported boiling their drinking water; their actions
have changed because of media warnings about drinking water contamination
that occurred several years ago. They often indicated trusting suburban
Maryland water more than Washington, D.C. water in terms of water safety.
However, respondents perceptions about water safety were not always directly
attributable to regional problems; some expressed general distrust for
treated water.
Do you think that your drinking water is safe? Why or why not?
What makes you believe that it is safe/unsafe?
Response to this question varied. Some people had not even thought about
the safety of their water, and assume that it is safe if it comes out
of their tap; the assumption is that someone, somewhere must be regulating
it. Others said they do not believe their water is safe, because of turbidity
or past problems with their water system. Other reasons for distrusting
water safety are the smell, taste, or appearance of the water.
"If it looks pretty clear and it's not cloudy, that usually gives
me a good sign that it's ok." (Tacoma respondent)
Are there any laws or regulations that require your water to
be safe? (probe for knowledge of EPA)
Most respondents did not have any knowledge about specific laws or regulations
that require water to be safe, but they said such rules must exist. Their
was an understanding that water is treated and tested before it reaches
a home, for water coming through city water lines for example. There was
also often a vague or non-existent understanding about who actually makes
and/or enforces the laws.
"I would imagine it has to be probably a combination between the
State and the Federal level. I'm not really sure which. I would imagine
it's like anything else." (Tacoma respondent)
If you think about safety, where do you find out how safe your
water is to drink? Would you ever use the Internet to find out?
Most respondents were unsure about how to find out about drinking water
safety from a proactive sense, specifically who to contact and when to
do this. They often indicated that they would expect to hear about a problem
through the media (television, newspaper, or radio). If they wanted to
find out more, some respondents said they would contact their water company.
However, some people do not even know who their water company is (e.g.,
apartment dwellers who do not receive the water bill). Also heard was
that respondents might look in the Blue Pages of their phone book under
the heading "water," or would simply contact the Health Board. Much of
their confusion often stemmed from lack of understanding about what agency
actually oversees their water supply, and whether they should look to
a local, state, or Federal source for information or assistance.
A large number of people said that they have access to the Internet,
and even though it is not the first place that comes to mind to locate
information, they would not hesitate to use it. However, some people who
did not have Internet access said that information should be made available
to people in a number of formats, not just on the Internet.
Have you ever heard of drinking water posing a health risk?
Are there certain people for whom drinking water may be more of a concern?
Most respondents had a general understanding of the fact that drinking
water can pose a health risk. A number of people also indicated children
and the elderly as being more susceptible to health risks, and to a lesser
extent cancer patients or other people with lowered immune systems.
Some respondents had heard through the media of incidents with drinking
water that caused illness or even death. Those who were familiar with
these incidents attributed it to reasons such as floods or natural disasters,
or pollution or other contaminants from humans.
"I think there was a terrible article on TV a couple nights ago.
I can't remember the name of the disease, but in Lake Michigan, the water
purification plant was two miles downstream from where they were dumping
toxic stuff from a sewage treatment plant. It was going in two miles upstream
from that plant, and it has pulled in some virus that killed in excess
of a hundred people rather rapidly. Something that starts with a "C" but
it wasn't good. It came from the drinking water supply, and this was just
in the last week." (Sioux Falls respondent)
What kind of substances can get into drinking water to make
it unsafe? How do they get there?
Response to this question varied from an ability to list specific parasites
(e.g., giardia) or other agents, to one of general understanding that
biological material or minerals can enter the water and affect the body.
A number of respondents cited various environmental occurrences as being
responsible for changes in the water quality, such as water table increase,
seepage or septic waste, or dumping of hazardous substances.
"I would think some kind of bacteria was -- you know, that was not
processed completely or somebody had dumped something in it accidentally
or something. Some kind of contamination." (Atlanta respondent)
Comments from participants also reflected regional industry awareness;
for example, Sioux Falls respondents had awareness about effects of farming
and pesticide impact, whereas Tacoma respondents were aware of water quality
issues from an outdoor activities perspective (e.g., impact of dumping
waste into streams while camping).
"I think it's safer in this area, pretty much, but you worry with
all the farming and insecticides and the run-off and the cows in the water,
everything from urine and feces to pesticides and farming chemicals being
dumped in the water. What are you drinking, you know, sometimes?" (Sioux
Falls respondent)
Maryland respondents were also more aware of potential sources of water
contamination because of recent problems with fish kills.
"Well from what I hear, Maryland water's not too safe either with
the runoff from the chicken factories and everything." (Maryland respondent)
Do you think of drinking water as an environmental issue or
a health issue?
Most people responded that the issue of drinking water safety is both
an environmental and health concern. It was often cited as being interconnected;
what enters our environment will eventually be passed on to humans in
one form or another.
"Well, first you have to control environmental things in order to
control the health issues with the water. If we can keep tabs with what's
going into the water systems and how it is being purified in the water
purification plants, and making sure those processes are up to standards,
then hopefully the drinking water will be safe." (Sioux Falls respondent)
"Sounds like 'which came first, the chicken or the egg?' If you're
not having good hygiene, you're going to pollute the environment, which
in turn pollutes yourself." (Sioux Falls respondent)
Are you aware that most drinking water contains low levels
of many impurities? Does this concern you?
Most respondents were not surprised to learn or already understood that
drinking water contains low levels of impurities.
"There's always going to be contaminants in it. There's never going
to be 100 percent clean water. It goes by percentages." (Sioux Falls respondent)
However, some did not know that water contains impurities, and assumed
that the water coming from their faucet is pure, uncontaminated water.
Demand
for Information About Drinking Water
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