WPC- `":;ͽ-Wm4r&:;x5]xqԭQ,N !.o4 PtoIEÅkOk(XkߩI0K.G0R|MTp3]}!Svm uH> mg4+2 I[ܑwro{#9+d{+oyxRZfuH["S¾NH4~ Rh Kΐzck*VVߒs<3-]8]!t6+Kp89n va_BRBW) ?nυ t,1u2gp(:nb?)vOz^0teUEČxEi~893 .{]>('5U )`O5t0/EmҔaڰt!BC$JGF:[IkR@Nn!T2UB %U$:> 0 0l 0[+ 0h 0] 0jK 0 0y 0@ 0  0 0 0ob 0 0 0Y 0( 0 0G 0b 0ysF 0 D+F q 07! 0=! 0" AQ" " 1U#=$nYM$ 0r'( 1m (w@(4(UN( 0/) 0+ A+UN3,UN,U N,\  `*Times New RomanTT<6X9`("Courier NewTT'  ;9/2/97 JCarriero0JCarriero .   H4heading 1heading 1&    8.` hp x (#8XXXW\  `*Times New RomanTTW        O<6X9`("Courier NewTTO>4X` hp x (#>'  h~:Default ParaDefault Paragraph FontXXXW\  `*Times New RomanTTW        O<6X9`("Courier NewTTOT~:endnote textendnote text  XXXO<6X9`("Courier NewTTO        O<6X9`("Courier NewTTO^:endnote refeendnote referenceXXXW\  `*Times New RomanTTW        O<6X9`("Courier NewTTOV~:footnote texfootnote text  XXXO<6X9`("Courier NewTTO        O<6X9`("Courier NewTTO`:footnote reffootnote referenceXXXW\  `*Times New RomanTTW        O<6X9`("Courier NewTTO88T,toc 1toc 1   (#        >4X` hp x (#>8;T,toc 2toc 2  ` (#        >4X` hp x (#>8>T,toc 3toc 3  ` (#        >4X` hp x (#>8>T,toc 4toc 4   (#        >4X` hp x (#>8>T,toc 5toc 5  h(#        >4X` hp x (#>88T,toc 6toc 6   (#        >4X` hp x (#>8!,toc 7toc 7          88T,toc 8toc 8   (#        >4X` hp x (#>88T,toc 9toc 9   (#        >4X` hp x (#>@;T0index 1index 1  ` (#        >4X` hp x (#>@;T0index 2index 2  ` (#        >4X` hp x (#>P5T8toa headingtoa heading   (#        >4X` hp x (#>@~0captioncaption  XXXO<6X9`("Courier NewTTO        O<6X9`("Courier NewTTO^~:_Equation Ca_Equation CaptionXXXW\  `*Times New RomanTTW        O<6X9`("Courier NewTTOH4Body TextBody Text  8.` hp x (#8XXXW\  `*Times New RomanTTW        O<6X9`("Courier NewTTO>4X` hp x (#> i z)J+ J     XX+   + XX??US.,!"RB>z<x 0 @ H@ELxxLxUS??.,(e2z$ &!;J   'dxd Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5(e2z$ &!;J   ($    (e2z$ &!;J    C<< c  z"J+ J    (#XXX+ @   <+ XX@    1  A  $359=AEIMQ13|x0\  `*Times New RomanTTC\  P6QP<6X9`("Courier NewTTTTd6X@DQ@\  `*Times New RomanTTXXP\  P6QXP<6X9`("Courier NewTTTTXXx6X@DQX@\  `*Times New RomanTT&&J\  P6Q&P(J$_,_  # e37=CIQYag1.a.i.(1)(a)(i)1)a) 'D()E*+D,-D./D0Հz$ffffff(99Z 6Times New Roman RegularH4heading 2heading 2&    8.` hp x (#8XXXW\  `*Times New RomanTTW        O<6X9`("Courier NewTTO>4X` hp x (#>'  (r3T$ &!;J    d y  <<= 8C(9 Z 6Times New Roman Regular(9 Z 6Times New Roman Regular&O Z 6Times New Roman Regular &!J+ J   ݛ& t   B.` hp x (#XBXX+ XW)XXX      ݜ  May1998   @||USINGFIRETOREDUCERISKSTOSOCIETYANDTHEENVIRONMENT JԈ{&     JXXW)+ J XX't    XX+ XXXX      &W&XX&.&&&WXW)X&&.Fireisimportanttothehealthofmanywildlandecosystems,includingforestsandgrasslands. L Becausefirehasbeenwithheldfromtheseecosystemsforsolong,theincreaseduseofplannedorprescribedfireisessentialtoeffectivelymanageresourcesinmanywildlands.Firesuppressionpractices,ofcourse,continuetobeimperativeforprotectingpublicsafetyandproperty,butproperlymanagedfirewillactuallyreducetheriskstosocietyassociatedwithcatastrophicwildfires,includingthreatstohumanhealthandproperty.Prescribedfiremustbeusedinajudiciouslyandcarefullyplannedfiremanagementprogram.Effectivefiremanagementpracticesinclude:C # $#(CE1` hp x (#XE0   o0(#(#Reducinghazardousfuelaccumulations(e.g.,deadtrees,branches,andvegetativematteron   forestsfloors)byprescribedfire,mechanicalmeans,orboth (#(# H.` hp x (#,` XHE1` hp x (#XE0   o0(#(#Usingsmokemanagementtechniquesduringprescribedburnstominimizetheimpactsof \ smokeonpopulatedareasandonvisibilityinnationalparksandwildernessareas.Thesetechniquesinclude,K1` hp x (#,` XKconductingprescribedburningduringfavorableweatherconditionsandcK1` hp x (#,` XKontrollingtheamountoffuelandacreageburned (#(# H.` hp x (#,` XHE1` hp x (#XE0   o0(#(#Wheneverpossible,usingmechanicalthinning,suchasselectivetimbercuttingortree H removal,asapretreatmenttoprescribedburning (#(# H.` hp x (#,` XHE1` hp x (#XEo0  0(#(#  Implementingfirehazardawarenessandmitigationprogramsforprivatelandowners (#(# H.` hp x (#,` XHE1` hp x (#XE0   o0(#(#Involvingaffectedpartiesinplanningfiremanagementactivities(#(# C # $$#CH.` hp x (#,` XHOwnersandmanagersofprivateandpubliclyownedlandsinthewildland/urbaninterface+XW)XXXW)Ԁ(where l housesandstructureshavebeenbuilt)#XW)XX+XW)#Ԁandairregulatorsshouldworktogethertoreducetherisks X wildfiresposetopublichealthandsafety.Homeownersshouldalsolookforwaystodecreasenaturalandhumanmadefuelsontheirlands.Fireexpertsinlocalfireordisasterservices,Stateforesters,firemarshals,andFederalwildlandfireagenciescanprovideinformationonfiresafety.Thewebsite,www.firewise.org,providesinformationonwayshomeownerscanprotect #X! themselvesandtheirpropertyfromwildlandfire.&    JXXW)+ J    B.` hp x (#XBXX+ XW)XXX      Smokemanagementprograms(SMPs)helpminimizepublichealthandenvironmentalimpacts %!$ fromsmoke.StateSMPsaredevelopedwithinputfromStateandlocalairqualityagencies;Federal,State,andtriballandmanagers;privatelandowners;andthegeneralpublic.TheyhelpmeetFederalairqualitystandardsandprotectvisibilityinnationalparksandwildernessareas.&    JXXW)+ J XX    XX+ XXXX      0XW)XXXCooperativefirefightingagreementsamongneighboringStates,Federalagencies,andtribes P*%) greatlyimprovefirefighterresponsetimeandprovideincreasedprotectionofpublicsafetyandproperty.Astheuseofprescribedfireisincreased,landmanagersandairregulatorsmustworkcooperatively.Integratedplanningeffortsareneedediffireandsmokemanagementpracticesaretomeetenvironmentalandpublichealthgoals.Agenciesmustworktogethertoinformthepublicaboutthebenefitsofprescribedfireactivities,includinghowsmokemanagementprogramsareusedtoreducetheimpactsfromsmoke.Forfiretobeusedsuccessfullyasaresourcemanagementtool,weallneedtobecomebetterinformedaboutfireandfiremanagementpractices.&    0JX0XW)+ 0J  1J+ 1XW)X1J T*%3 М'4/23/98')(ma()*May1998*   @ THEROLEOFFIREINNORTHAMERICA   FirehasalwaysbeenapartoftheNorthAmericanlandscape.Firehashelpedshapemanyofourwildlands(suchasforestsandgrasslands)forthousandsofyears.Asthesewildlandshaveadapted,firehasbecomeessentialfortheirhealthandsurvival.Firepromotesecosystemdiversityandcanimprovesoilconditions,wildlifehabitat,andforesthealth.NativeAmericansusedfiretoclearareasforvillagesandfarms,tomaketraveleasier,toattractgameanimals,andtoeliminatehidingplacesforenemies.However,Europeansettlersbroughtadifferentphilosophyregardingfire.Theyperceivedfireasathreatandbelieveditshouldbeeliminatedwheneverpossible.Consequently,publicpolicyhaslongencouragedpreventingandsuppressingfiretoprotectpublicsafety,property,andourwildlands.̀Unfortunately,thispolicyignorestheimportantrolefireplaysinthelong-rangehealthofourecosystems.Wenowknowthatvigorousfireexclusionpracticeshavehadmanyunexpectedandunwantedconsequences.Pastsuppressioneffortshaveaffectedthehealthandthreatenedtheveryexistenceofmanyplantcommunities.InmanypartsofNorthAmerica,firesuppressionhascausedchangesintypesofvegetation,significantlyalteringecosystems.ForestsintheNorthAmericanlandscapenowfunctionmuchdifferentlythantheydidacenturyago.Manyforestsarenowmoresusceptibletoinsects,disease,anddrought.Increasesinforestdensityandchangesintreeandplantspecieshavealsoalteredforestcomposition.E14` hp x (#XEӀPeriodiclowintensityfiresusedtonaturallythinforeststandsandreducethebuildupof flammablefuelsordebris(logs,smalltrees,fallenbranches,etc.),allowingtheremainingtreestogrowtallerandhealthier.Firesuppressionpractices,ofcourse,continuetobeimportantforprotectingpublicsafelyandproperty,howeverpastpracticesofsuppressingvirtuallyallfireshaveledtoadangerousbuildup   offuelsinmanywildlands.Inrecentyears,thenumberandsizeofcatastrophicwildfireshaveincreasedandthesefiresareburninghotterandemittingmorehealththreateningpollutantsthaneverbefore.0    (#(# Afireoccurringinanareawithaheavybuildupoffuels(e.g.,anabundanceofdeadanddownedtrees)willproducemuchmoreheat.Thatintenseheatcandamageandkilltreesandscorchthesoil,makingitpronetoerosionandunstablefortheregenerationofvegetationandlessproductive.Landmanagersarenowusingplannedor prescribedfireasanimportanttoolforrestoringourwildlandstohealthandreducingtheriskstohumanhealthandpropertyassociatedwithcatastrophicwildfires.Unlikecatastrophicwildfires,prescribedfirescanbemanagedtoyieldbenefitsforecosystemhealthandpublicsafety,whileminimizingsmokeimpactsonairquality.Techniquesareusedtominimizesmokeimpacts,includingburningonlyundercertainweatherconditionsandcontrollingtheamountandtypeoffuelsburned.N1` hp x (#4` XNPrescribedfiresencouragebiologicaldiversity.Prescribedfires,typicallyconductedinareaswith lightfuelsduringcooler |*%) weather,canbebeneficialratherthandamaging.  K1` hp x (#,` XKFirecanhelpseedsgerminatebyremovinggroundcover(fallenneedles,leaves,andbranches),releasingnutrientsintothesoilandexposingthemtosunlight.Fireisalsoanaturalrecyclingagentthathelpsmaintainthebalancebetweenplantgrowthanddecomposition.K1` hp x (#,` XKOverthelongterm,thefrequentuseofsmaller,prescribedfireswilldecreasethepotentialforserioushealtheffectsresultingfromsmokeandpollutantemissionsthatcomefromlargewildfires.H.` hp x (#,` XHTherestorationoffiretoourlandscape,intheformofcarefullymanagedprescribedfire,isimportant.Itcanhaveapositivelongtermeffectonourenvironmentandonourpublichealthandsafety. |*%) М+4/23/+,May19,98B.` hp x (#XB @Z Z EFFECTIVEWILDLANDFIREMANAGEMENT   ЀThroughoutmostofthiscentury,Americansconsideredallfiresonwildlandforestsandgrasslands,whethercausedbylightningorhumans,tobeharmful.Weassumedallfiresdidlittleotherthanthreatenwildlife,decreasetimbervalues,andthreatenhumanlifeandproperty.Consequently,firewasvigorouslysuppressedthroughoutmostofNorthAmerica.Yettheresultofthisnationalcampaignhashadalmosttheoppositeeffect.Aswestuntedthespreadofwildlandfire,thehealthofmanyofourforestsandgrasslandsdeteriorated.Firesuppressionpracticeswereandcontinuetobeimperativeforprotectingpublicsafety,propertyandvaluabletimberlandsandotherresources.Butoursuppressionoflowburninggroundfiresthatoncethinnedundergrowthandhelpedrejuvenatenativeplantsandtreesonaregularcyclehasnowallowedfastgrowthofnewtreeandnonnativeplantspecies.Thesespeciescompeteforspaceanderodethehealthandstabilityofmanyecosystemsandwildlifehabitat.Whatsworseisthatourcenturyoffiresuppressionhasalsodramaticallyincreasedthefrequencyandintensityofcatastrophicwildfires,whichcanburnoutofcontrolforweeks,destroyingthousandsofacresofforestsandposingseverethreatstolifeandproperty.Becausesmaller,morefrequentfiresnolongerreduceandrecyclethebuildupof"flammablefuel"(logs,branches,etc.)ontheforestfloors,uncontrollablewildfiresnowburnhotterandfasterthaneverbefore.Lately,wildfireshavealsobecomelargeremittingmorepollutantsthatthreatenhumanhealthandwelfareandimpairvisibilityinournationalparksandwildernessareas.Unknowingly,throughalltooeffectivefiresuppressionactivities,humanshavebothweakenedthehealthofwildlandecosystemsandcausedanincreaseinthefrequencyofcatastrophicwildfires.Thelackofperiodicfiresinmanyunmanagedwildlandshasincreasedtheriskstoboththeenvironmentandsociety.̀Federal,State,tribalandlocallandmanagersnowrecognizetheneedtochangepastpractices.Theyhavelearnedthatcarefulandeffectiveuseoffireprotectspeoplewholivenearorrecreateinpubliclands.Also,theyknowthatusingfireasatoolcanreducetheriskstothefirefighterswhoprotectourlives,land,andproperty.Itcanalsorestorenativehabitattohelppreventtheextinctionofspecies.Ofthe145endangeredandthreatenedrareplantspeciesintheUnitedStates,134areknowntobenefitfromwildlandfire.̀Bycarefullyusingplannedorprescribedfirealongwith mechanicaltreatmentsinselectedlocations,landmanagersreducethefuelsthatcanleadtocatastrophicinfernos.Inmanyareasprescribedfirecannotbeusedeffectivelywithoutfirstremovingexcessfuelloadings,suchaslogs,branches,andbrush.Mechanicaltreatmentsincludeselectivecutting,thinningorpruningoftreesandtheuseofchainsorcablingtoremovebranches.Prescribedfiresconductedduring |*%) favorableweatherconditionsreduceheat,flamesize,andsmoke,whichinturn,minimizesadverseimpactsonpublichealthandtheenvironment.B.` hp x (#XBӀ  H.` hp x (#` XHInthelongrun,usingprescribedfiresandmechanicaltreatmentstoreducefuelsnowreducescostsassociatedwithsuppressinglarge,unwantedwildfireslater.Theaveragecostofprescribedfiresissignificantlylessthanthecostsspenttosuppresscatastrophicwildfires.BycarefullyH.` hp x (#` XHreturningfiretoourforestsandgrasslandstoday,wecanhelprestorehealth,safety,stability,integrityandproductivitytotheland. |*%) М-4/23/-.May19.98   @LL DEFININGFIREMANAGEMENT:PREVENTION,SUPPRESSION,ANDUSE     FIREPREVENTION <Fire preventionincludesteachingthedangersofunwantedfireandtheadverseeffectsofunmanagedwildland(forest,range,andgrassland)fires.Firepreventionpracticeshelpprotectagainstfirescausedbylightningorbyhumanaccidentsandincludetakingpracticalstepstoreducehazardous fuelbuildupofflammablematerials(e.g.,fallenlogs,branches,andshrubs)onforestfloors.Firepreventionincludesusingcarefullyplannedfires,called prescribedfires,ormechanicalmethods,suchasselectivecutting,thinningorpruningoftrees.Thesemethodshelp defusethefuelbehindrecentwildfires,whichoftenstartduringthehottest,driest,andwindiestdaysandbecomeincreasinglydifficulttocontrol.̀SmokeyBear,themostfamoussymbolofwildlandfireprevention,stillhasapowerfulmessage:"preventforestfires.Firesuppressionpracticescontinuetobeimperativeforprotectingpublicsafetyandpropertyandimportantnaturalresources,suchastimberlands.Unfortunately,however,Smokey'smessagehasoftenbeeninterpretedtomeanthatallfireisbadandshouldbe H suppressed.Aggressivefiresuppressionactivitiesfornearlyacenturyhaveresultedinmanywildlandareasthatareunhealthyandvolatile.Theheavyfuelbuildupinourwildlandshascontributedtothequantityandsizeofrecentcatastrophicfires.̀,&    B.` hp x (#XB1XW)XX1XW)XeXX1XW)XW)XXXe       FIRESUPPRESSION B  4 ,Ansecݜ- -    XW)XXXW)1XW)XXXW)ԛ XX'A- -, ,  B.` hp x (#XBFire suppressionmeansactiontakenonwildfirestoprotectlifeandreducedamagetoresourcesandproperty.Inthelastdecade,firesuppressioneffortsinwildlandecosystemshaveescalatedbecauseoftheincreasedintensityofthetypicalwildfirefromyearsoffuelbuildup.Becauseoftheneedformorepersonnelandlarger,moreexpensiveequipmenttobattletheblazesforlongerperiodsoftime,firesuppressioncostshavespiraledupwards.Suppressiontoolsnowoftenincludeanarsenalofequipmentlikeroughterrainfireengines,largebulldozers,helicopters,andairtankers.Suppressioncostsfromthe1996fireseasonaloneapproachedabilliondollars.Theaveragecostofprescribedfiresisusuallysignificantlylessthanthecostsforsuppressingcatastrophicwildfires.H.` hp x (#` XH&    B.` hp x (#XB1XW)XX1XW)XeXX1XW)XW)XXXe       FIREUSE |H  $D # G&    XW)XXXW)1XW)XXXW)1XW)XX1XW) XX'$G  Fire useistheapplicationoffiretomeetspecificlandmanagementobjectives.Theplanneduseoffireinwildlandareas,prescribedfire,canachieveavarietyoflandmanagementobjectives.Lowintensityprescribedfiresreducetheamountofaccumulatedfueldeadanddownedtrees,branches,vegetativematterontheforestfloor.Italsocanlessenthechancesoftotallossofforestedorotherwildlandareastowildfires.Fireisalsovitalforthepropagationofnativespecies |*%) ofplants,suchaslongleafandPitchpine,Giantsequoia,redwoods,andsomethreatenedherbaceousplants.Aneffectivemanagedfireprogramsmaller,morefrequent,lowintensityprescribedfireswillproducestandsoftreesandplantshavingmorevariedages.Suchvariedagedstandsincreasethediversityofbothplantandanimalspecies,producinghealthierecosystemsthataremoreresistanttoinsectoutbreaksandlargewildfires. |*%) М/4/23//0May19098 @ WILDLANDFIREANDAIRQUALITY   /XW)XX1XW)TheCleanAirActrequirestheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)toreview(andrevise,if t necessary)nationalairqualitystandardsatleastonceeveryfiveyearstoprovidestrongpublichealthandenvironmentalprotection.EPAhassetnationalairqualitystandardsforsixcommonairpollutants:groundlevelozone(smog),carbonmonoxide,sulfurdioxide,lead,nitrogendioxide,andparticulatematter.#1XW)XX/XW)M#XW)XX1XW) $ t InJuly1997,theEPArevisedthenationalambientairqualitystandards(NAAQS)forparticulatematterandozone.Thenewstandardsprovideadditionalhealthprotectionagainstairpollutionfor125millionatriskAmericans,including35millionchildren.Inaddition,EPAsproposednewRegionalHazeProgramaddressesvisibilityimpairmentinthosenationalparksandwildernessareasgivenspecialprotectionundertheCleanAirAct.Theparticulatematterinsmokecanpenetrateandremaininthedeepestregionsofthelungsandcancausepersistentcoughing,wheezing,andpain. Fineparticles,thoselessthan2.5micrometerswide(about1/30thediameterofahumanhair),areagreathealthconcernbecauseexposuretothemmayincreasetherateofrespiratoryandcardiovascularillnessesandevenreducelifeexpectancy.Smokefromfireispartofthenaturalenvironment.Itiscomposedofparticulatematterandotherpollutants.Thenewairqualitystandardsforparticulatematterincludenew,stricterlimitsonconcentrationsoffineparticles.Mostoftheparticlesinsmokearelessthan2.5micrometersinsize.EPAisalsoconcernedaboutthesignificantimpactsthatfineparticlesfromsmokehaveonvisualairquality,orvisibility.Thisisofparticularconcerninthemorethan150nationalparksandwildernessareas,wherescenicvistasareparticularlyimportant.EPAsproposednewRegionalHazeProgram,combinedwiththenewairqualitystandardsforparticulatematter,shouldimprovethevisibilitynotonlyintheseareas,butalsothroughoutthecountry.EPAbelievesthatitsnewairqualitystandardsarenecessarytoincreasepublichealthandvisibilityprotection.TheAgencyalsorecognizesthatfireisessentialtoeffectiveecosystemmanagementandthatanincreaseincarefullyconductedprescribedburningcanimprovethequalityoffiredependentwildlands.Fireplaysavitalroleinthemaintenanceofhealthyforestsandrangelands.Increasesintheamountofprescribedfirewillalsominimizetheoccurrenceoffastspreadingcatastrophicwildfiresinmanyareasbyreducingthebuildupofflammable fuelslikefallentrees,branches,andneedlesinourforests.Mechanicaltreatment,whichincludesselectivecutting,thinningandpruningoftrees,isalsoneededasaneffectivelandmanagementtoolinmanycircumstances.However,mechanicaltreatmentsalonecannotreplacetheuseofprescribedfireforrestoringecosystemhealth;certainplantcommunitiesrelyonfireforregenerationandfire |*%) speedsthereleaseofimportantnutrientsintothesoilthathelptreesandplantsgrowhealthyandstrong.EPAanditspartnersbelievethatprotectingpublichealthandvisibilitycanbeaccomplishedinconcertwithincreasesinprescribedfire.However,todoso,landmanagerswhousefiretoaccomplishlandmanagementobjectivesmustuseeffectivesmokemanagementtechniques.Thesetechniquesincludeschedulingburnsduringfavorableweatherconditions,usingproperignitionmethods,andcontrollingburningperiods.Unlikecatastrophicwildfires,prescribedfiresutilizethesesmokemanagementtechniquestominimizeairpollutionthatcouldotherwiseadverselyaffectthepublichealthandwelfare.EPAhasworkedinpartnershipwithStateandlocalagencies;Federallandmanagers(FLMs);industryrepresentatives;environmentalgroups,andotherFederalagenciestodevelopanationalpolicy,EPAsInterimAirQualityPolicyonWildlandandPrescribedFires,thatadvocatestheincreaseduseofprescribedfirewhileensuringprotectionofairqualityandpublichealth.ThePolicywasdevelopedincoordinationwiththeSubcommitteeonOzone,ParticulateMatter,andRegionalHazeImplementationProgram,whichwasformed,undertheauspicesoftheFederalAdvisoryCommitteeAct(FACA).#1XW)XXXW)O#/XW)XX1XW)ԀTheFACAsubcommittee,whichiscomprisedofawiderange \ ofstakeholders,helpedEPAdevelopflexibleandcosteffectiveimplementationstrategiesforthenewairqualitystandardsandtheproposedRegionalHazeProgram.#1XW)XX/XW)_#XW)XX1XW)   \ ̀#1XW)XXXW)`#  `