Cleanup of Non-Spore-Forming Agents
Find research on methods and considerations for wide-area outdoor remediation following contamination with non-spore-forming agents
Many microorganisms (fungi, protozoa, bacteria, viruses) are beneficial, even essential, to human health, ecosystem function, food production, global climate stability, and ocean health. However, a subset of microorganisms is pathogenic – or disease-causing – to other organisms. Environments contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms, in a manner that poses risk of disease to humans, may require risk mitigation measures to eliminate or reduce disease occurrence. EPA is authorized to respond to releases of biologicals into the environment, as pollutants or contaminants, to reduce risk and adverse impacts to human health and the environment.
This page summarizes EPA’s research and development of scientific products that support building capabilities for non-spore-forming biological agent incident responses. Please select from the agent type and/or topic area dropdown selectors to refine your search, or use the search bar below.
You can also view remaining capability & knowledge gaps in this area, including agent persistence, sampling & analysis, decontamination & disinfection, and waste management.
| Product & Link | Summary |
|---|---|
| Evaluating the Environmental Persistence and Inactivation of MS2 Bacteriophage and the Presumed Ebola Virus Surrogate Phi6 Using Low Concentration Hydrogen Peroxide Vapor | This article evaluates the environmental persistence and inactivation of MS2 bacteriophage and Phi6 using low concentration hydrogen peroxide vapor. Phi6 is an enveloped virus, the same classification of virus as Ebola virus. The study finds that both MS2 and Phi6 were effectively inactivated by low concentration hydrogen peroxide vapor within a short time. The results indicate that hydrogen peroxide vapor at low concentrations can be an effective method for environmental disinfection against viruses. This research has implications for the development of strategies to mitigate the spread of viral infections in healthcare settings and other environments where effective disinfection is crucial. |
| Determination of the Persistence of Non-Spore-Forming Biological Threat Agents in the Environment | This report focuses on determining the persistence of non-spore-forming biological threat agents (Yersinia pestis, Burkholderia mallei, Francisella tularensis) in the environment. The report provides insights into the environmental behavior and longevity of these biological agents, which can be used for assessing the risks associated with their potential release into the environment. The report contains information on methodologies, experimental findings, and recommendations for further research or mitigation strategies related to non-spore-forming biological threat agents. |
| Determination of the Persistence of Non-Spore-Forming Biological Threat Agents in the Environment | This report focuses on determining the persistence of non-spore-forming biological threat agents (Yersinia pestis, Burkholderia mallei, Francisella tularensis) in the environment. The report provides insights into the environmental behavior and longevity of these biological agents, which can be used for assessing the risks associated with their potential release into the environment. The report contains information on methodologies, experimental findings, and recommendations for further research or mitigation strategies related to non-spore-forming biological threat agents. |
| Persistence of Categories A and B Select Agents in Environmental Matrices | This report is a literature review that summarizes the persistence of Category A and B select agents in environmental matrices. The authors summarize the longevity of several select agents (Bacillus anthracis, Brucella species, Burkholderia mallei, Burkholderia pseudomallei, Francisella tularensis, Coxiella burnetii, Viral Encephalitis, hemorrhagic fever viruses, and Yersinia pestis) in various environmental conditions and matrices. The article also discusses the potential implications of these findings for risk assessment, emergency response planning, and public health preparedness. |
| Environmental persistence and inactivation of vaccinia virus on materials | Vaccinia virus, which is used as a surrogate for variola virus (the causative agent of smallpox), was found to persist for weeks to months on various materials under different environmental conditions. The virus was most persistent at low temperatures and low relative humidity, with minimal reduction in viral load over a 56-day period. This information can aid in decision-making for infection control measures, such as the need for environmental decontamination, in the event of a release of variola virus as a biological weapon or during a potential outbreak of smallpox. |
| Persistence Testing of Brucella suis on Outdoor Materials | The persistence of Brucella suis on various materials in different environmental conditions was investigated. The results showed that B. suis persisted for at least 28 days on aluminum, glass, and soil at both low and moderate temperatures, but only for 7 days on concrete. B. suis persisted longer at low temperature compared to moderate temperature. The presence of UV-A/B reduced the persistence of B. suis on aluminum and glass to 2-7 days but had less effect on soil. B. suis was not recovered from concrete when exposed to UVA/B, and testing was not conducted on wood with UV-A/B. |
| Environmental Persistence of a Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (H5N1) Virus | This study investigated the environmental persistence of a highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (H5N1). The research team found that the virus could remain viable in different environmental conditions for extended periods, with survival times ranging from several hours to several days. The persistence of the virus was influenced by factors such as temperature, humidity, and the type of surface it was deposited on. The findings highlight the importance of understanding the environmental behavior of H5N1 virus in order to develop effective strategies for controlling its spread and mitigating the risk of avian influenza outbreaks. |
| Freeze Dried Vaccinia Virus Persistence testing and Liquid Decontamination Technology Evaluation | Tests were conducted to investigate the persistence of vaccinia virus, a surrogate for smallpox, on different materials under various environmental conditions. Results showed that the virus persisted for different durations on different materials, with longer persistence observed under low relative humidity conditions at both room and low temperatures. |
| Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza H5N1 Virus Persistence Testing and Evaluation of Liquid Decontamination Technologies | This study investigated the persistence of H5N1 virus on various materials, including chicken feces, galvanized metal, glass, and soil, under different environmental conditions. The results showed that the virus did not persist on galvanized metal and glass for one day or longer at room temperature, but generally persisted within chicken feces and soil for less than two days. At low temperature, the virus persisted for at least four days on all materials. Under low temperature, low relative humidity (RH), and no ultraviolet (UV) exposure, the virus was detected after 13 days on galvanized metal, glass, and soil. UV- A/B exposure reduced the persistence of the virus, with less than 48 hours persistence on galvanized metal and glass, but at least 48 hours persistence on chicken feces and soil under low temperature and low RH conditions. Further testing was not conducted for durations longer than 13 days, but the virus persistence may exceed 13 days, particularly on galvanized metal and glass under low temperature, low RH, no UV conditions. |
| Impact of Temperature and Humidity on the Persistence of Vaccinia Virus and Ricin Toxin on Indoor Surfaces | Report investigating the impact of temperature and humidity on the persistence of Vaccinia virus and ricin toxin on indoor surfaces. The report found that higher temperatures and lower humidity levels generally resulted in shorter survival times for both the virus and toxin. The findings have implications for indoor environmental management, emergency response planning, and biodefense strategies. |
| Development of a rapid viability RT-PCR (RV-RT-PCR) method to detect infectious SARS-CoV-2 from swabs | This journal article presents the development of a rapid viability reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RV-RT-PCR) method for detecting infectious SARS-CoV-2, from swab samples. The authors describe the methodology used to develop this rapid viability RT-PCR method, which involves measuring the replication competence of the virus in a cell culture system. The article highlights the advantages of the RV-RT-PCR method, including its ability to provide results within a shorter timeframe compared to traditional methods, and its potential for identifying live infectious virus. The authors also discuss the implications and potential applications of the RV-RT-PCR method in the context of SARS-CoV-2 surveillance, diagnosis, and infection control measures. |
| Decontamination Efficacy of Common Liquid Disinfectants Against Non-Spore-Forming Biological Agents in Soil Matrices | This study investigated the efficacy of common liquid disinfectants against non-spore-forming biological agents in soil matrices. Efficacy was evaluated three different disinfectants (dilute bleach, Virkon-S or Klozur One), on soil samples (clay, loam, or sand) contaminated with non-sporeforming biological agents (Yersinia pestis, Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus, Burkholderia pseudomallei). The results showed that the effectiveness of the disinfectants varied depending on the type of disinfectant, concentration, exposure time, and soil moisture level. Overall, quaternary Ammonium Compounds and chlorine-based disinfectants were more effective in reducing the presence of non-sporeforming biological agents in soil matrices compared to hydrogen peroxide-based disinfectants. Higher concentrations and longer exposure times generally resulted in greater decontamination efficacy. Hypochlorite and peroxygen based disinfectants used in soils containing higher organic content (loam or clay) may require extended contact times or re-application of liquid disinfectant, in as little as 15 min of application, to achieve a 6-log reduction. Soil moisture levels also influenced the efficacy, with higher moisture levels generally providing better results. |
| Evaluation of Altered Environmental Conditions as a Decontamination Approach for Non-Spore-Forming Biological Agents | This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of altered environmental conditions as a decontamination approach for non-spore-forming biological agents (Burkholderia pseudomallei and Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus). The research team conducted experiments to investigate the effects of various environmental conditions, including temperature and relative humidity, on the survival and decontamination of non-spore-forming biological agents. The results showed that altering environmental conditions, such as increasing temperature or relative humidity, can effectively reduce the survival of non-spore-forming biological agents. Greater than six log reduction was accomplished in as little as 6 h by elevating temperature to approximately 60°C. However, the efficacy of decontamination varied depending on the specific biological agent and environmental condition. |
| Inactivation of Burkholderia pseudomallei on Environmental Surfaces using Spray-Applied, Common Liquid Disinfectants. | This study aimed to investigate the efficacy of common liquid disinfectants in inactivating Burkholderia pseudomallei on environmental surfaces. Experiments were conducted using spray-applied common liquid disinfectants to evaluate their effectiveness against B. pseudomallei. The results showed that certain common liquid disinfectants (citric acid (1%), pH-adjusted bleach, ethanol (70%), quaternary ammonium, and PineSol) were effective in inactivating B. pseudomallei on non-porous (glass, aluminum) and porous (wood, concrete, carpet) environmental surfaces. Tests were conducted at both an ambient temperature (c. 20°C) and a lower temperature (c. 12°C) condition. Nonporous materials (glass and aluminium) were more easily decontaminated than porous materials (wood, concrete and carpet). Citric acid (1%) demonstrated poor efficacy in all test conditions. Bleach (pH‐adjusted), ethanol (70%), quaternary ammonium and PineSol®, demonstrated high (>6 log10 reduction) efficacies on glass and aluminium at both temperatures, but achieved varying results for wood, carpet and concrete. Temperature had minimal effect on decontamination efficacy during these tests. |
| Inactivation of Vegetative Bacterial Threat Agents on Environmental Surfaces | The purpose of this study was to determine the efficacy of several liquid decontaminants, when used to inactivate vegetative biological agents on environmental surfaces. Aluminum, carpet, concrete, glass, and wood coupons were inoculated with 1 × 108 CFU of Burkholderia mallei, Francisella tularensis, Vibrio cholerae, or Yersinia pestis. Using spray-based application methods, decontamination was then attempted with pH-adjusted bleach, 1% citric acid, 70% ethanol, quaternary ammonia, or Pine-Sol®. Results indicated that decontamination efficacy varied significantly by decontaminant and organism. Materials such as wood are difficult to decontaminate, even when using sporicides. The data presented here will help responders develop efficacious remediation strategies following a large-scale contamination incident. |
| A Yersinia pestis specific, lytic phage preparation significantly reduces viable Y. pestis on various hard surfaces experimentally contaminated with the bacterium | Five Y. pestis bacteriophages obtained from various sources were characterized to determine their biological properties, including their taxonomic classification, host range and genomic diversity. The five phages were combined to yield a “phage cocktail” (tentatively designated “YPP-100”) capable of lysing the 59 Y. pestis strains in our collection. YPP-100 was examined for its ability to decontaminate three different hard surfaces (glass, gypsum board and stainless steel) experimentally contaminated with a mixture of three genetically diverse Y. pestis strains CO92, KIM and 1670G. Five minutes of exposure to YPP-100 preparations containing phage concentrations of ca. 109, 108 and 107 PFU/mL completely eliminated all viable Y. pestis cells from all three surfaces, but a few viable cells were recovered from the stainless steel coupons treated with YPP-100 diluted to contain ca. 106 PFU/mL. However, even that highly diluted preparation significantly (p = < 0.05) reduced Y. pestis levels by ≥ 99.97%. Y. pestis phages may be useful for decontaminating various hard surfaces naturally- or intentionally-contaminated with Y. pestis. |
| Large-scale evaluation of microorganism inactivation by bipolar ionization and photocatalytic devices | This article describes a consistent testing approach in an operational-scale test chamber with a mock HVAC system to evaluate the efficacy of bipolar ionization and photocatalytic devices against the non-enveloped bacteriophage MS2 in the air and on surfaces. Results showed statistically significant differences between technology tests and control tests after 1 hour, with reductions of up to 0.88 log10 for bipolar ionization tests and 1.8 log10 for photocatalytic device tests. It should be noted that elevated ozone concentrations were observed during photocatalytic device testing, and no significant differences were found in MS2 deposition or inactivation on surfaces between control and technology tests. The authors emphasize the need for standardized, large-scale testing approaches with time-matched control conditions to contextualize laboratory efficacy results, translate them to real-world conditions, and facilitate technology comparisons. |
| Evaluation of Steam Heat as a Decontamination Approach for SARS-CoV-2 when Applied to Common Transit Related Materials | This article evaluates the efficacy of steam heat as a decontamination approach for SARS-CoV-2 on common transit-related materials. The study finds that steam heat at a temperature of 70°C for 5 minutes significantly reduces the viability of SARS-CoV-2 on various materials commonly found in transit settings. The decontamination efficacy of steam heat is dependent on the type of material, with greater reduction observed on non-porous materials compared to porous materials. The findings suggest that steam heat could be a potentially effective decontamination approach for transitrelated materials to mitigate the spread of SARS-CoV-2 in transit settings. |
| Efficacy of Detergent-Based Cleaning and Wiping against SARS-CoV-2 on High Touch Surfaces | The efficacy of various cleaning methods against SARS-CoV-2, the virus responsible for COVID-19, was evaluated on surfaces contaminated with either 5% soil load (SARS-soil) or simulated saliva (SARS-SS). Hard water dampened wiping (DW) of surfaces resulted in a reduction of 1.77-3.91 log at T0 (immediately after contamination) or 0.93-2.41 log at T2 (2 hours after drying). Incorporating surface pre-wetting by spraying with a detergent solution (D + DW) or hard water (W + DW) just prior to dampened wiping did not consistently increase efficacy against infectious SARS-CoV-2, with the effect being nuanced depending on surface type, viral matrix, and time. Cleaning efficacy on porous surfaces, such as seat fabric, was found to be low, while DW was the only method that consistently resulted in >3-log reduction of hydrated virus on stainless steeland ABS plastic. These results suggest that wiping with a hard water dampened wipe can effectively reduce infectious SARS-CoV-2 on hard non-porous surfaces, while pre-wetting surfaces with surfactants did not significantly increase efficacy in the conditions tested. The efficacy of cleaning methods was found to be influenced by surface material, presence or absence of pre-wetting, and time post-contamination. |
| Determining Viral Disinfection Efficacy of Hot Water Laundering | This article explores the effectiveness of hot water laundering in disinfecting viruses (Phi6). The study uses a standardized testing approach to evaluate the efficacy of hot water laundering against viruses. The experiment involves contaminating fabrics with viruses, subjecting them to hot water laundering at various temperatures, and measuring the reduction in viral load. The results indicate that hot water laundering at higher temperatures (≥ 60°C) is effective in reducing viral load on fabrics, with greater reduction observed at higher temperatures and longer washing durations. The study highlights the importance of laundering practices, such as using hot water, to effectively disinfect fabrics and reduce the risk of viral transmission. |
| Efficacy of Chemical Disinfectants Against SARS-CoV-2 on High-Touch Surface Materials | This study evaluated the effectiveness of chemical disinfectants against SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, on high-touch surface materials. The authors tested various disinfectants on different surface materials, including stainless steel, vinyl, painted wood, and glass. The results showed that some disinfectants were more effective than others in inactivating SARS-CoV-2 on different surface materials. The findings suggest that the choice of disinfectant and surface material may impact the efficacy of disinfection against SARS-CoV-2 on high-touch surfaces, highlighting the need for careful selection of appropriate disinfectants for specific surface materials in different settings. |
| Evaluation of Surface Disinfection Methods to Inactivate the Beta Coronavirus Murine Hepatitis Virus | This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of various surface disinfection methods against the beta coronavirus murine hepatitis virus (MHV). The authors tested different disinfection methods on MHV-contaminated surfaces, including quaternary ammonium compounds, bleach, and hydrogen peroxide-based disinfectants. The results showed that some disinfection methods were effective in inactivating MHV, while others were less effective. The findings suggest that the choice of disinfection method may impact the efficacy of inactivating MHV on surfaces. |
| Inactivation of MS2 bacteriophage on copper film deployed in high touch areas of a public transport system | This study focuses on investigating the effectiveness of copper film inactivating MS2 bacteriophage, a common surrogate for SARS-CoV-2, on high touch areas in a public transport system. The researchers found that copper film was highly effective in inactivating MS2 bacteriophage within a short time period. The study suggests that deploying copper film in high touch areas of public transport systems may be a promising strategy for reducing the spread of viral pathogens, including SARS-CoV-2. |
| Evaluating Impact of Ultraviolet-C Exposure Conditions on Coliphage MS2 Inactivation on Surfaces | This study focuses on evaluating the effectiveness of different ultraviolet-C (UV-C) exposure conditions against MS2 bacteriophage. The researchers assessed various parameters such as UV-C dosage, exposure time, and distance to determine their impact on efficacy against MS2. The study found that higher UV-C dosages, longer exposure times, and closer distances resulted in greater efficacy against MS2. The findings of the study may help optimize UV-C disinfection protocols for controlling viral pathogens in various settings. |
| Residual Antimicrobial Coating Efficacy Against SARS-CoV-2 | This study focuses on evaluating the residual efficacy of antimicrobial coatings against SARS-CoV-2. The researchers investigated the effectiveness of various antimicrobial coatings against SARS-CoV-2 on different surfaces. The study found that some antimicrobial coatings exhibited residual efficacy against SARS-CoV-2, with the duration of effectiveness varying depending on the coating and surface type. For instance, on stainless steel surfaces, certain antimicrobial coatings demonstrated residual efficacy for up to 7 days, while on plastic surfaces, the efficacy persisted for up to 5 days. However, the duration of efficacy was found to be shorter on surfaces with higher levels of physical abrasion, such as painted wood and carpet, with efficacy ranging from 1 to 3 days. The findings of the study may have implications for the development of effective strategies for controlling SARS-CoV-2 transmission in various environments. |
| Evaluation of electrostatic sprayers and foggers for the application of disinfectants in the era of SARS-CoV-2 | The study focuses on evaluating the effectiveness of electrostatic sprayers and foggers for the application of disinfectants during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. The researchers conducted experiments to assess the efficiency of these application methods in achieving uniform coverage and effective disinfection. The study found that electrostatic sprayers and foggers were effective in achieving consistent coverage of disinfectants on various surfaces. However, the effectiveness of these methods was influenced by factors such as spray distance, nozzle type, and surface material. Additionally, the researchers observed that the type of disinfectant used in conjunction with the electrostatic sprayers and foggers also impacted the efficacy of disinfection. Some disinfectants showed better efficacy in reducing the viability of SARS-CoV-2 when applied using electrostatic sprayers or foggers compared to others. |
| Virucidal Efficacy of Antimicrobial Surface Coatings against the Enveloped Bacteriophage Φ6 | This study focuses on evaluating the effectiveness of antimicrobial surface coatings against the enveloped bacteriophage Φ6, which is used as a surrogate for enveloped viruses such as SARS-CoV-2. The researchers conducted experiments to assess the virucidal efficacy of different antimicrobial coatings on surfaces commonly found in public spaces. The study found that certain antimicrobial coatings demonstrated significant virucidal efficacy against Φ6 bacteriophage, reducing its viability on surfaces. However, the effectiveness of the coatings varied depending on factors such as coating type, concentration, and application method. The findings of the study highlight the potential of antimicrobial surface coatings as a strategy for reducing the viability of enveloped viruses on surfaces, but further research is needed to understand their efficacy against specific viruses such as SARS-CoV-2 and their long-term durability in real-world settings. |
| Evaluating the Environmental Persistence and Inactivation of MS2 Bacteriophage and the Presumed Ebola Virus Surrogate Phi6 Using Low Concentration Hydrogen Peroxide Vapor. | This study focuses on evaluating the persistence and inactivation of MS2 and Phi6 (both bacteriophages) using low concentration hydrogen peroxide vapor. The researchers conducted experiments to assess the environmental persistence and inactivation kinetics of these viruses on various surfaces using hydrogen peroxide vapor. The study found that low concentration hydrogen peroxide vapor was effective in inactivating MS2 bacteriophage and Phi6 on surfaces, with the inactivation rates varying depending on the surface material and virus type. The results suggest that hydrogen peroxide vapor could be a potential disinfection method for reducing the persistence and viability of viruses on surfaces. However, further research is needed to understand the efficacy of this method against specific viruses in real-world settings and to optimize the application conditions for different surfaces and virus types. |
| Summary of hydrogen peroxide vapor generation using off-the-shelf items and equipment for the disinfection of spaces and materials | This technical brief focuses on summarizing the use of hydrogen peroxide vapor for disinfection of spaces and materials using off-the-shelf items and equipment. The authors provide an overview of the process for generating hydrogen peroxide vapor using readily available items and equipment that are commonly found in various settings. They highlight the advantages and limitations of using this method for disinfection purposes. The article discusses the effectiveness of hydrogen peroxide vapor in inactivating various pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, and fungi. It also provides recommendations for the application of hydrogen peroxide vapor in different environments, such as healthcare facilities, laboratories, and public spaces. The tech brief serves as a resource for understanding the potential use of hydrogen peroxide vapor as a disinfection method using accessible items and equipment, and it provides valuable information for practitioners and decision-makers considering this approach for their specific disinfection needs. |
| The Use of Bacteriophage MS2 for the Development and Application of a Virucide Decontamination Test Method for Porous and Heavily Soiled Surfaces | This article discusses the use of bacteriophage MS2, a nonpathogenic virus, as a surrogate for testing the efficacy of virucide decontamination methods on porous and heavily soiled surfaces. The authors describe the development and application of a test method using MS2 to evaluate the effectiveness of virucides in decontaminating surfaces that are challenging to clean, such as porous or heavily soiled surfaces. The authors present results of their experiments demonstrating the efficacy of various virucides (pH-adjusted bleach (pAB) and 2% citric acid) against MS2 on different surfaces (treated wood and concrete). In disinfectant testing, two spray applications of pAB were effective against MS2 (≥4‐log reduction) on all operational‐scale materials. Two percent citric acid had limited effectiveness, with a ≥4‐log reduction observed on a selected subset of grimed concrete samples. The article concludes with recommendations for the use of the MS2 test method for evaluating virucide efficacy on challenging surfaces, and its potential applications in the development and testing of decontamination strategies for porous and heavily soiled surfaces. |
| Effectiveness of Spray-Based Decontamination Methods for Spores and Viruses on Heavily Soiled Surfaces | This report investigates the efficacy of spray-based decontamination methods on heavily soiled surfaces contaminated with spores (Bacillus globigii) and viruses (MS2). The report provides insights into the effectiveness of different spray-based decontamination methods for reducing spores and viruses on heavily soiled surfaces, offering valuable information for decision-makers in environmental protection and public health. The report also highlighted that the level of soil on the surfaces had an impact on the efficacy of the decontamination methods. Heavily soiled surfaces required more thorough cleaning prior to applying the spray-based decontamination methods to achieve optimal results. |
| Environmental persistence and inactivation of vaccinia virus on materials | This study investigated the environmental persistence and inactivation of vaccinia virus on different materials. The study showed that vaccinia virus could persist on various surfaces, including metal, plastic, and cloth, for up to 60 days. The virus was inactivated more rapidly on cloth compared to metal and plastic surfaces. The study concluded that the persistence and inactivation of vaccinia virus on materials could vary depending on the surface type. |
| Freeze Dried Vaccinia Virus Persistence testing and Liquid Decontamination Technology Evaluation | The study evaluated the efficacy of decontamination methods against freeze-dried Vaccinia virus, a surrogate for smallpox virus. Two liquid decontamination technologies were tested, including, 1% citric acid and hospital grade quaternary ammonium salt (732 ppm) disinfectant. The evaluation was conducted at room and low temperatures with a 30-min liquid decontaminant contact time; galvanized metal and industrial carpet were the test materials. Neither 1% citric acid nor 732 ppm quaternary ammonium salt reduced the vaccinia virus to non-detectable levels. For 1% citric acid, mean log reductions in vaccinia virus PFUs on galvanized metal were 3.2 at both the room and low temperatures; on industrial carpet, log reductions were 2.6 at room temperature and 2.5 at low temperature. When 732 ppm quaternary ammonium salt was used, mean log reductions in vaccinia virus PFUs on galvanized metal were 1.5 at both the room and low temperature conditions; on industrial carpet the log reductions were less than 1.0. |
| Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza H5N1 Virus Persistence Testing and Evaluation of Liquid Decontamination Technologies | This study evaluated the efficacy four liquid decontamination technologies, using a 10-min contact time, against Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza H5N1 virus: 1% citric acid, pH amended bleach (pAB), a hospital-grade 732 parts per million (ppm) quaternary ammonium disinfectant, and 8% sodium carbonate (Na2CO3). Test surfaces included galvanized metal and soil. Only pAB was completely effective at inactivating the H5N1 virus (i.e., H5N1 virus was not detected), and this inactivation only occurred on galvanized metal (at both room and low temperatures). On soil, pAB resulted in mean H5N1 virus log reductions in TCID50 of 2.7 at room temperature and 2.9 at low temperature. The mean H5N1 virus log reductions in TCID50 associated with 1% citric acid ranged from 1.5 (with soil at room temperature) to 2.1 (with galvanized metal at low temperature). The mean H5N1 virus log reductions in TCID50 associated with 732 ppm quaternary ammonium and 8% Na2CO3 were less than 1.0. |
| Impact of Temperature and Humidity on the Persistence of Vaccinia Virus and Ricin Toxin on Indoor Surfaces | Report investigating the impact of temperature and humidity on the persistence of Vaccinia virus and ricin toxin on indoor surfaces. The report found that higher temperatures and lower humidity levels generally resulted in shorter survival times for both the virus and toxin. The findings have implications for indoor environmental management, emergency response planning, and biodefense strategies. |
| Feasibility Study Report: Management of Swine Lagoons Following African Swine Fever Outbreak | This report, by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), evaluates options for managing waste lagoons at swine operations to prevent the spread of African Swine Fever Virus (ASFv) in the event of an outbreak in the United States. The report is based on an extensive review of available literature and input from subject matter experts. The potential effectiveness, technical feasibility, environmental and health concerns, and cost considerations of various lagoon management options are evaluated. The report highlights that there is limited scientific information available on ASFv persistence in swine waste lagoons, and onsite monitoring would be required to ascertain the effectiveness of lagoon management options. The report also identifies long-term storage, chemical disinfection, and thermal treatment as the most commonly recommended methods for inactivation of ASFv in liquid manure, but further research is needed to reduce uncertainties associated with these options. |
| Computational simulation of incineration of chemically and biologically contaminated wastes | This study focuses on using computational simulations to model the incineration of chemically- and biologically-contaminated wastes. The report presents detailed findings on the impact of various parameters, such as waste composition, combustion temperature, and residence time, on the efficiency of incineration and the potential for emissions of pollutants. The results of the study can be used to inform waste management strategies, including the design and operation of incineration facilities, to effectively handle contaminated wastes while minimizing environmental impacts. |
| Biosecurity Testing of Horizontal Grinders | This report presents the findings of a study conducted by a team of researchers at The Seventh International Symposium on Animal Mortality Management in 2021. The study focuses on evaluating the biosecurity of horizontal grinders used in animal mortality management operations. The report provides detailed results on the effectiveness of biosecurity measures in place during the operation of horizontal grinders, including the potential for cross-contamination with pathogens. The findings can be used to inform biosecurity protocols and best practices for the use of horizontal grinders in animal mortality management to mitigate the potential spread of pathogens. |
| Assessment of Biosecurity of Using Horizontal Grinders to Enhance Composting to Improve Preparedness for African Swine Fever Virus | This report presents the findings of a study at the EPA International Decontamination Research and Development Conference in 2021. The study focuses on assessing the biosecurity of using horizontal grinders to enhance composting as a preparedness measure for African Swine Fever (ASF) virus. The report provides detailed results on the potential risks associated with using horizontal grinders in composting operations, including the potential for spreading ASF virus particles. The findings can be used to inform biosecurity protocols and guidelines for the use of horizontal grinders in composting operations to mitigate the potential spread of ASF virus and other pathogens. |
| Viral Persistence in Landfill Leachate | This report presents the findings of a study conducted on viral persistence in landfill leachate. The study focuses on assessing the potential for viruses to persist and survive in leachate generated from landfills. The report provides detailed results on the persistence of viruses in landfill leachate under various conditions, including temperature, pH, and treatment processes. The findings can be used to inform decision-making and guidelines for the management and treatment of landfill leachate to mitigate potential risks associated with viral contamination. |
| Exposure Assessment of Livestock Carcass Management Options During a Foreign Animal Disease Outbreak | This report presents the findings of a study on the exposure assessment of livestock carcass management options during a foreign animal disease outbreak. The study focuses on evaluating the potential exposure risks to humans and the environment associated with different carcass management options during disease outbreaks in livestock. The report provides detailed results on the potential for exposure to hazardous substances, pathogens, and other contaminants during carcass disposal methods such as burial, composting, and incineration. The findings can be used to inform decisionmaking and regulatory guidelines for the safe and effective management of livestock carcasses during disease outbreaks. |
| Evaluation of Persistence of Viruses in Landfill Leachate | This report presents the findings of a study on the evaluation of the persistence of viruses in landfill leachate. The study focuses on assessing the potential for viruses to persist and survive in leachate generated from landfills. The report provides detailed results on the persistence of viruses in landfill leachate under various conditions, including temperature, pH, and treatment processes. The findings can be used to inform decision-making and guidelines for the management and treatment of landfill leachate to mitigate potential risks associated with viral contamination. |
| Feasibility of Selected Infectious Carcass Pretreatment Technologies | This report presents the findings of a study on the feasibility of selected infectious carcass pretreatment technologies. The study focuses on evaluating the effectiveness and feasibility of different methods for pretreating infectious animal carcasses prior to disposal. The report provides detailed results on the technical, economic, and environmental aspects of the selected pretreatment technologies, including their potential for reducing pathogens, operational requirements, and costs. The findings can be used to inform decision-making and regulatory guidelines for the proper pretreatment of infectious animal carcasses. |
| Progress Report: Transportable Gasifier for On-Farm Disposal of Animal Mortalities | This report provides a progress report on the development of a transportable gasifier for on-farm disposal of animal mortalities. The report summarizes the advancements made in the design and implementation of a gasifier system for converting animal mortalities into energy on-farm. It provides detailed findings on the technical aspects of the gasifier, including its performance, emissions, and safety measures. The report also highlights the potential benefits of using gasification as a disposal method for animal mortalities, including reduced environmental impacts and increased on-farm sustainability. The findings can be used to inform further research and development efforts in the field of animal mortality disposal and renewable energy generation. |
| Identification and Screening of Carcass Pretreatment Alternatives | This technical brief summarizes a study on the identification and screening of carcass pretreatment alternatives. The study focuses on evaluating different methods for pretreating animal carcasses prior to disposal. The report provides detailed findings on various pretreatment alternatives, including their effectiveness in reducing pathogens, environmental impacts, and feasibility for implementation. The results can be used to inform decision-making and regulatory guidelines for the proper pretreatment of animal carcasses. |
| Identification and Screening of Infectious Carcass Pretreatment Alternatives | This report presents the results of a study on the identification and screening of infectious carcass pretreatment alternatives. The study focuses on evaluating different methods for pretreating infectious animal carcasses prior to disposal. The report provides detailed findings on various pretreatment alternatives, including their effectiveness in reducing pathogens, environmental impacts, and feasibility for implementation. The results can be used to inform decision-making and regulatory guidelines for the proper pretreatment of infectious animal carcasses. |
| Combustion of Contaminated Animal Carcasses in a Pilot-scale Air Curtain Burner | This report presents findings from a pilot-scale study on the combustion of contaminated animal carcasses using an air curtain burner. The study focuses on evaluating the effectiveness of this disposal method for contaminated animal carcasses. The report provides detailed results on the combustion process, emissions, and residue characteristics, including recommendations for operational parameters and air pollution controls. The findings can be used to inform decisionmaking and guidelines for the proper disposal of contaminated animal carcasses using air curtain burners. |
| Field Study on Cleaning a Rendering Plant Following a Foreign Animal Disease (FAD) Outbreak | This report documents a field study on cleaning a rendering plant after a Foreign Animal Disease (FAD) outbreak. The study focuses on the challenges and best practices for cleaning a rendering plant contaminated with FAD. The report provides detailed findings on the methods and techniques used for cleaning and decontamination, including equipment, protocols, and monitoring procedures. The report serves as a valuable resource for understanding the complexities of cleaning and decontaminating a rendering plant following an FAD outbreak and can be used to inform future preparedness and response efforts. |
| Report on the 2011 Workshop on Chemical-Biological-Radiological Disposal in Landfills | The 2011 Workshop on Chemical-Biological-Radiological Disposal in Landfills was held by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in Washington, D.C. and this report summarizes the proceedings. The workshop focused on the challenges and best practices related to the disposal of chemical, biological, and radiological wastes in landfills. The report provides an overview of the discussions, presentations, and recommendations made by experts in the field, highlighting the need for improved waste characterization, monitoring, and regulatory guidance to ensure safe disposal practices. The report serves as a valuable resource for understanding the issues and potential solutions associated with chemical-biological-radiological waste disposal in landfills. |
Remaining Capability & Knowledge Gaps
Agent Persistence
Persistence of non-spore-forming microorganisms is relatively low compared to spore-forming agents. However, some environmental matrices and conditions can significantly extend the persistence of non-spore-formers. Additionally, some agents cause communicable disease, which helps them overcome relatively short persistency in the environment, in causing long-duration incidents or outbreaks. Understanding agent persistence, and factors that enhance or reduce persistence are valuable for prescribing risk reduction approaches. More work is needed in this area to understand and predict future biological incidents, outbreaks, and pandemics.
Sampling and Analysis
Rapid, readily available, low-cost environmental sample collection and sample analysis approaches are critical for large incident remediation, when response decisions rely on a full understanding of the types and extent of contamination involved. Much of the existing sample collection data was generated for Bacillus anthracis spores, which have high stability in collection media. A greater understanding is needed for non-spore-forming agent collection efficiency, sample storage stability, optimal sample processing methods, and rapid yet robust analytical methods. Work is needed to improve these methods to allow more rapid data generation and increase the speed and fidelity of decision making.
Decontamination and Disinfection
Decontamination of indoor and outdoor environments is difficult. High complexity, sensitive equipment, and high organic burdens often make decontaminant selection and application problematic and can reduce treatment effectiveness. Effective risk reduction measures must overcome these challenges. More work is needed to develop decontamination technologies, methods, and strategies for complex environments.
Waste Management
Effective and efficient waste management approaches are necessary for successful remediation. Waste generation begins with the first entry, and the management of incident waste poses significant cost and logistical challenges. Animal disease incidents can generate significant quantities of infectious carcass waste. Transport of wastes for off-site disposal may be warranted or required for particular incidents. Waste categorization also impacts logistics and costs. All aspects of waste management have the potential to be improved through innovation, research, and development. Safety of waste management workers while handling, transporting, treating, and disposing of waste must be maintained. Transportation of wastes that are designated as DOT Category A infectious agents can cause significant operational, logistical, and political challenges; waste management complications could be significantly reduced if on-site treatment could be done, allowing the waste to be categorized as conventional solid waste.